Apostrophe s ( ‘s ) shows possession.

Example: Cynthia’s Mustang

Your/ You are/ You’re

1. You: This is a pronoun that refers to the person or people being addressed. It’s a straightforward way to talk about someone without any additional context. For example:
   • “You are doing a great job!”
2. You’re: This is a contraction of the words “you” and “are.” It combines them into one word. Use it when you want to express a state of being or describe someone. For instance:
   • “You’re my best friend!”
   • “Make sure you’re healthy before you start training.”
3. Your: This is a possessive adjective, indicating ownership. It’s used to show that something belongs to the person you are addressing. Examples include:
   • “Washing the dishes is your responsibility.”
   • “She met your sister yesterday.”
   • “We think your sense of humor is outrageous.”

Its/ it is / it’s

1. Its: This is a possessive pronoun used to indicate that something belongs to or is associated with a non-human entity. It does not have an apostrophe. Examples include:
   • The cat licked its paws.
   • The tree lost its leaves in autumn.
2. It’s: This is a contraction of the words “it” and “is.” When you see “it’s,” you can replace it with “it is” without changing the meaning of the sentence. Examples:
   • It’s raining outside. (Equivalent to “It is raining outside.”)
   • It’s important to stay hydrated. (Equivalent to “It is important to stay hydrated.”)
3. It is: This is the full form of the phrase. Use it when you want to explicitly state “it is.” Examples:
   • It is a beautiful day.
   • It is time to go home.

Remember, the apostrophe in “it’s” always represents a contraction, while “its” is the possessive form. Keep practicing, and you’ll master these distinctions! 

Their/ they are/ they’re

1. Their: This is a possessive pronoun used to indicate that something belongs to or is associated with a non-human entity. It does not have an apostrophe. Examples include:
   • The cat licked its paws.
   • The tree lost its leaves in autumn.
2. They’re: This is a contraction of the words “they” and “are.” When you see “they’re,” you can replace it with “they are” without changing the meaning of the sentence. Examples:
   • They’re funny people. (Equivalent to “They are funny people.”)
   • They’re the cutest puppies ever.
3. They are: This is the full form of the phrase. Use it when you want to explicitly state “they are.” Examples:
   • They are having a great time.
   • They are talented musicians.

Remember, the apostrophe in “they’re” always represents a contraction, while “their” is the possessive form.

Loose/Lose

1. Loose:
   • Adjective: Loose means something is not firmly fixed or not tight.
     • Example: “The handle is loose.”
     • Example: “Mary wore loose clothes.”
   • Idiomatic Uses:
     • Loose change: Refers to coins that a person is carrying.
     • Loose cannon: Describes a dangerously uncontrollable person or thing.
     • Loose-lipped: Indicates someone who is given to unrestrained talk.
     • Loose fit: Describes a fit with sufficient clearance to permit free play or even rattle.
     • Hang loose: Encourages remaining calm or relaxed.
     • Fast and loose: Refers to acting recklessly or irresponsibly (or in a craftily deceitful way).
     • Have a screw loose: Suggests someone is mentally unbalanced.
     • All hell breaks loose: Describes what happens when violent, destructive, and confused activity suddenly begins.
2. Lose:
   • Verb: Lose means to no longer have something or to fail to win.
     • Example: “If you lose something, you can’t find it.”
     • Example: “She loses her temper easily.”
   • Idiomatic Uses:
     • Lose one’s temper: To get angry.
     • Lose one’s mind: To go insane.
     • Lose one’s way: To become lost (often used figuratively).
     • Lose one’s head: To become very upset or angry.
     • Lose heart: To become discouraged.
     • Lose count: To forget a number or total.
     • Lose face: To lose other people’s respect.
     • Lose it: To lose one’s composure.
     • Lose out: To fail to receive an expected reward or gain.
     • Lose sleep over: To worry about something so much that one cannot sleep (usually used in negative statements).

Remember, if you lose a sock, it disappears, but you don’t have “lose change” (which is actually “loose change”). And if there’s a loose screw, you might need to loosen a knot, but you definitely shouldn’t lose your mind!

Well/good

1. Well:
   • Adverb: Well is an adverb used to describe how an action is performed. It indicates that something is done in a satisfactory manner.
     • Example: “She plays the piano well.”
     • Example: “He speaks English very well.”
   • Health and Well-Being Exception:
     • When referring to a person’s health or well-being, “well” can be used as an adjective.
       • Example: “After recovering from the flu, she feels well now.”
   • Linking Verbs:
     • Linking verbs, which describe a state rather than an action, can also take “good”, the adjectival form.
       • Example: “The cake looks so good.”
2. Good:
   • Adjective: Good is an adjective that means something is favorable, praiseworthy, or of high quality.
     • Example: “This lasagna is good.”
     • Example: “He did a good job on the project.”

Remember:

• Good modifies a noun, describing its quality.
• Well modifies an action, describing how it is performed.

So, if you’re feeling good, you’re doing well!

Fewer/ Less -count nouns and non-count nouns.

1. Fewer:
   • Usage with Countable Things: Fewer is used when referring to things that can be counted. It emphasizes a number.
     • Example: There are fewer apples than oranges.
     • Example: The store has fewer choices in stock.
2. Less:
   • Usage with Uncountable Things: Less is used when referring to things that cannot be counted. It emphasizes quantity or degree.
     • Example: She has less time to complete the task.
     • Example: He put in less effort this time.

Exceptions and Common Expressions:

• Distances: We say “less than three miles.”
• Sums of Money: For example, “less than twenty dollars.”
• Units of Time and Weight: As in “less than five years” or “less than ten ounces.”
• Statistical Enumerations: Such as “less than 50,000 people.”
• Phrases: “An essay of 250 words or less.”
• Supermarket Checkout Signs: You might see “twelve items or less” (although some prefer “items or fewer”).

Remember, less modifies things that are often thought of as amounts, while fewer focuses on countable numbers.

Lie/Lay

1. Lie:
   • Definition: Lie means to be in a flat position on a surface. It is an intransitive verb, describing something that is already in position or moving on its own.
   • Examples:
     • “I was told to lie down.”
     • “I lay down.”
     • “I have lain here since.”
     • “I’m still lying here.”
2. Lay:
   • Definition: Lay means to place something down flat. It is a transitive verb, requiring an object to act upon. There must be a thing or person being placed.
   • Examples:
     • “I was told to lay the book down.”
     • “I laid it down as I have laid other books down.”
     • “I am laying more books down now.”

Remember:

• Lie is for things already in position or moving on their own.
• Lay is for placing something down with an object.

Bad/Badly

1. Bad:
   • Adjective: Bad is an adjective used to modify nouns and pronouns. It describes something as immoral, of low quality, or not good.
     • Example: “She was in a bad accident.”
     • Example: “That was a bad test for Amanda.”
     • Example: “This is a bad restaurant.”
2. Badly:
   • Adverb: Badly is an adverb that conveys the manner or degree of a verb’s action. It is used to modify verbs.
     • Example: “She was hurt badly in the accident.”
     • Example: “This restaurant cooks badly.”
     • Example: “My dog behaves badly.”

Exception (Linking Verbs):

• Linking verbs such as “to be” and “to feel” can be used with adjectives because they describe a state rather than an action.
  • Example: “My dog is bad.”
  • Example: “My dog smells bad.”

Remember, bad modifies nouns, while badly modifies verbs.

To/Two/Too

1. To:
   • Preposition: To is a preposition that serves various purposes:
     • Direction or Motion: It indicates movement or direction toward something.
       • Example: “I’m driving to the office.”
     • Contact or Attachment: It shows a point of contact or attachment.
       • Example: “Pin it to the wall.”
     • Object or Recipient: It specifies an object or recipient.
       • Example: “Give it to me.”
     • Setting a Range or Limit: It defines a range or limit.
       • Example: “The store is open from 9 to 5.”
2. Two:
   • Number: Two is the word form of the number 2.
     • Example: “I have two apples.”
     • Example: “They rode two bicycles.”
3. Too:
   • Adverb: Too has two main meanings:
     • Also: It means “in addition” or “as well.”
       • Example: “I’d like to go, too.”
     • Excessive Degree: It signifies an excessive amount or degree.
       • Example: “Don’t add too much sugar.”
       • Example: “The assignment is too hard!”

Remember:

• To is a preposition with various uses.
• Two is the number 2.
• Too means “also” or indicates excess.

So, when you want to use to, don’t use too many o’s!

Then/Than

1. Than:
   • Comparison: Than is used for comparisons. It indicates the relationship between two things or people.
     • Example: “Cats are smarter than dogs.”
     • Example: “He is taller than me.”
2. Then:
   • Time or Sequence: Then is used to indicate time, sequence, or consequence.
     • Example: “Back then, I lived in Idaho.”
     • Example: “We’ll have to wait until then.”
     • Example: “The then governor (referring to the person who was governor at that time).”

Remember:

• Use “than” for comparisons.
• Use “then” for something related to time or sequence. It often answers the question “when.”

So, if you’re comparing apples to oranges, use “than.” If you’re talking about what happened next, it’s “then.”

Gray/Grey

1. Gray:
   • More Common in the U.S.: Gray is more frequently used in American English.
   • Origins: It derives from the Old English word “grǣg.”
   • Examples:
     • “The sky was a dull gray.”
     • “His hair turned gray with age.”
2. Grey:
   • More Common in British English: Grey has historically been the preferred spelling in British English publications.
   • Origins: It also comes from the Old English word “grǣg.”
   • Examples:
     • “The mist settled over the grey hills.”
     • “She wore a soft grey sweater.”

Canceled/Cancelled

• Canceled (with one L) is more common in American English.
• Cancelled (with two L’s) is more common in British English.

Both versions mean the past tense of the verb “cancel,” which means to decide that something will no longer take place.

Could not care less

The phrase “could not care less” is an expression used to convey complete indifference or lack of interest in a particular situation or topic. When someone says they “could not care less,” it means that they have absolutely no concern or emotional investment in the matter. It’s often used to emphasize that there is no room for further disinterest or apathy.

For example:

• “I could not care less about the outcome of that reality TV show.”
• “His opinion is irrelevant to me; I could not care less what he thinks.”

Remember, the correct form is “could not care less” (not “could care less”), as the latter would imply that there is still some level of caring left.

Literal/Figurative

1. Literal Language:
   • Definition: Literal language uses words exactly according to their conventionally accepted meanings or denotation. It adheres to the straightforward, factual interpretation of words.
   • Examples:
     • When you say, “The sky is blue,” you are using literal language because you are describing the actual color of the sky.
     • “She runs every morning” is another example of literal language, as it directly describes the action of running.
2. Figurative Language:
   • Definition: Figurative language deviates from the conventionally accepted definitions of words to convey a more complicated meaning or create a heightened effect. It often involves metaphors, similes, and other creative expressions.
   • Examples:
     • Metaphor: “His heart is made of stone.” Here, stone is used figuratively to imply emotional hardness.
     • Simile: “Her smile is like sunshine.” The comparison to sunshine is figurative, emphasizing the warmth and brightness of her smile.
     • Personification: “The wind whispered through the trees.” The wind doesn’t literally whisper, but this figurative language adds vividness.

In Summary:

• Literal language sticks to the direct, dictionary meanings of words.
• Figurative language uses words in creative ways to evoke imagery, emotions, or deeper meanings.

So, while literal language is like stating facts, figurative language paints vivid pictures with words!

Subject: does the action. Who/Whom – object – receives the action.

He/Him

1. He:
   • Subject Pronoun: He is a singular third-person male pronoun used to replace the male subject of a sentence. It functions as a subject pronoun.
   • Examples:
     • “Tommy is going to school. He is going to school.”
     • “The man is going to take his car to work. He is going to take his car to work.”
2. Him:
   • Object Pronoun: Him is also a singular third-person male pronoun, but it serves as an object pronoun. It comes after a verb or a preposition when referring to a male person or animal.
   • Examples:
     • “I adore him.”
     • “She talked to him about the project.”

Remember:

• He replaces the masculine subject of the sentence.
• Him is used when referring to the male as the object of a verb or preposition.

She/Her

1. She:
   • Subject Pronoun: She is a singular third-person female pronoun used to replace the female subject of a sentence. It functions as a subject pronoun.
   • Examples:
     • “She sings beautifully.”
     • “She is my best friend.”
     • “She loves reading.”
2. Her:
   • Object Pronoun: Her is also a singular third-person female pronoun, but it serves as an object pronoun. It comes after a verb or a preposition when referring to a female person or thing.
   • Examples:
     • “I admire her talent.”
     • “The book belongs to her.”
     • “I invited her to the party.”

Remember:

• She replaces the feminine subject of the sentence.
• Her is used when referring to the female as the object of a verb or preposition.

They/Them

1. They:
   • Subject Pronoun: They is a plural third-person pronoun used to refer to multiple people or things. It functions as a subject pronoun.
   • Examples:
     • “They are going to the park.”
     • “They like pizza.”
2. Them:
   • Object Pronoun: Them is also a plural third-person pronoun, but it serves as an object pronoun. It comes after a verb or a preposition when referring to multiple people or things.
   • Examples:
     • “I invited them to the party.”
     • “The teacher praised them for their hard work.”

Remember:

• They replaces the plural subject.
• Them is used when referring to the plural object as the object of a verb or preposition.

We/Us

1. We:
   • Subject Pronoun: We is a plural first-person pronoun used to refer to multiple people or things. It functions as a subject pronoun.
   • Examples:
     • “We are going to the park.”
     • “We like pizza.”
2. Us:
   • Object Pronoun: Us is also a plural first-person pronoun, but it serves as an object pronoun. It comes after a verb or a preposition when referring to multiple people or things.
   • Examples:
     • “I invited us to the party.”
     • “The teacher praised us for our hard work.”

Remember:

• We replaces the plural subject.
• Us is used when referring to the plural object.

I/Me

Example: Teresa gave the tickets to Sue and me.

If you’re confused about whether or not to use “I” or “Me”, take out the noun and the conjunction (and).

Teresa gave the tickets to me. This sentence makes sense, so the use of “me” is correct.

Teresa gave the tickets to I. This sentence doesn’t make sense, so the use of “I” is incorrect.

Commas

However,

Therefore,

In conclusion,

Commas come after your transition words or phrases.

Extra information

Cynthia Spence, who drives a Mustang, works at IVC. “who drives a mustang” is unnecessary extra information. All you need is: Cynthia Spence works at IVC.

Basic quote template: According to Marla Miller. “…” (101). For the purpose of this class, you don’t need extra info about the author, but other classes may ask for more.

Oxford comma

When I die, divide my estate between my daughter, son and nephew.

Legally, the person is asking to divide their money between two people because of the comma placement. The family won’t receive equal funds. You need an extra comma to make three, and then it will be clear that the family will receive equal funds.

When I die, divide my estate between my daughter, son, and nephew.

Reminder: Making a grammar mistake is not a sign of how intelligent you are, but people will judge you; so, it is important to know how to use grammar correctly.

Canvas documents:

Writing tip from Prof. Spence: Write one paragraph a day for the argument essay due after spring break. Doing it this way makes it less overwhelming.